From Barter to Blockchain: A Journey Through Commodities and Economies

Humanity has a “propensity to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for another,” as Adam Smith memorably put it in The Wealth of Nations. Smith made the observation that the ability to trade goods and services sets humans apart from other animals.

So, let us begin with a story from the 18th century; the British Empire’s intense efforts in India, driven by its thirst for precious raw materials, resulted in financial hardship of unprecedented proportions. To alleviate increasing costs, the British government, thousands of miles away, turned to the American colonies, which were full of economic potential. Against this background, policies such as the Stamp Act and the Tea Act were introduced, which provoked a fierce backlash. The chapter of discontent that unfolded on American soil was not just an episode of taxation, but the catalyst for a revolution that forever changed the course of history. Delving into  the history of resources, this story provides a living reminder of how the pursuit of wealth and battles over taxes determine the fate of nations and reshape world affairs. The story symbolises the fundamental nature of commodities to modern commerce and civilization, and are inextricably linked to the evolution of economic systems. 

The Great Dispersion: The Influence of Commodities on Economic Systems

As the first humans dispersed across the globe, commodities facilitated early trade. As barter and exchange necessitated rudimentary systems of value and resource allocation, this era paved the way for the emergence of economic systems.  Native North American cultures valued obsidian, a naturally occurring material formed by volcanic activity, for the production of tools and weapons. As a food preservative, salt was a crucial commodity in ancient Africa that was traded across extensive regions. These transactions between various tribal groups paved the way for the evolution of economic systems, as people needed a method to evaluate and trade these commodities.

The Neolithic Revolution: Agriculture and Economic Organization

Agriculture and cultivation of agricultural products emerged during the Neolithic Revolution. These essentials not only sustained surging populations and additionally provided the groundwork for early economic structures.  In addition to the cultivation and exchange of valuable goods, these early economic activities contributed to the development of urban trade centres. Cities such as Mohenjo-Daro (for spices and herbs) in the Indus Valley and Ur (for barley) in Mesopotamia arose as vibrant trade centres, facilitating the interchange of products and fostering economic development and innovation. This time period paved the way for Adam Smith’s later theories on specialisation and the allocation of labour.

Land-Based Empires and Economic Systems

As land-based empires evolved from an amalgamation of communities during the Neolithic Revolution, commodities played an increasingly important role in facilitating trade and consolidating power structures. Through the epoch of land-based empires, the acquisition and distribution of commodities shaped the economic systems of these empires, which were frequently marked by centralised planning and tribute systems. The Roman Empire’s control over commodities such as gold, silver, and agricultural products, as well as the Incas’ administration of the potato as a staple commodity, exemplify how commodities supported their economic systems.

Sea-Based Empires and the Global Market

During the Age of Exploration, maritime empires emerged in many respects as an extension of nautical expertise passed down from preceding land-based civilizations. Nonetheless, the significance of their marine trade networks to the economies of these empires is what ultimately set them apart. Some examples of how sea-based empires used their naval reach to dominate global trade and amass wealth through commodities include the Spanish Empire’s massive exploitation of silver from the Americas and the Dutch East India Company’s control of the spice trade, which included commodities like nutmeg, mace, and cloves. As a result of this phenomenal trade, many people became aware of the vast possibilities of global commerce via naval might, which in turn paved the way for free-market ideas that impacted economic theory.

 

Nation-States and Industrial Capitalism: A New Economic Era

During the Industrial Revolution, nation-states and industrial capitalism simultaneously emerged. These emerging economies became dependent on commodities such as coal, iron, and textiles. The evolution of economic systems accommodated widespread production and consumption. Consider the significance of iron ore in the late nineteenth-century industrialization of the Ruhr Valley in Germany. This commodity, along with coal, was the foundation of the steel industry, catapulting Germany to the forefront of global industrialization and influencing the economic systems of Europe.

Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nations: The Birth of Capitalism

Contemporary economic thought has been traced back to Adam Smith’s seminal work, “The Wealth of Nations.” The ideas of Adam Smith regarding the invisible hand of the market and the role of self-interest in propelling economic prosperity constituted the intellectual foundation of capitalism. As the building elements of commerce, commodities played a central role in Smith’s conception of a market-based economic system. The British Empire’s control of the tea and opium trades in India and China (not in context of colonisation as Smith was opposed to it), as well as the sugar trade in the Caribbean and the Americas, supported the plantation economy and exemplified the central role of commodities in the emergence of capitalism.

David Ricardo and Comparative Advantage: The Evolution of Trade

David Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage developed Smith’s ideas further. To show that specialisation and trade are beneficial for everybody involved, he used the example of a country that is less effective at manufacturing all items. Commodities played a pivotal role in Ricardo’s theory as the archetypal traded assets. As an example, consider Britain’s textile industry in the 18th century; raw cotton was imported from the American colonies and then used to create completed textiles that were shipped throughout the world. This allowed Britain to take use of its superior manufacturing capabilities relative to its raw material production.

Marx and the Dialectics of Commodities 

In “Das Kapital,” Karl Marx examined commodities in depth, viewing them as much more than merely exchangeable products. He revealed how commodities obscure the labour and social relations that create them, often leading to exploitation within capitalist systems. His analysis highlights how commodities are central to the dynamics of capitalism, revealing the complexities of modern labour, value, and social structures.

The Modern Age and Globalised Economics: Adam Smith and Ricardo Revisited

Economic structures in the modern era have been transformed by globalisation and technological advancement. Adam Smith’s free trade ideas and David Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage have found newfound favour in today’s globally integrated commodity and electronic marketplace. Think about the significance of crude oil as a commodity sold throughout the world. The economy of both developing and developed countries have been considerably impacted by OPEC’s manipulation of crude oil output and pricing. This highlights the persisted power of commodities to shape international financial structures.

Closing Thoughts

In a nutshell commodities are not only the backbone of trade and civilisation, but also the catalysts for new forms of economic organisation. The subtle interplay between commodities and economic philosophy serves as our compass as we traverse the difficult issues of the twenty-first century, leading us to a future of sustainable and ethical economic systems that benefit all.

Written by; Mihir Mahagaonkar Junior Analyst, STN

References;

Atkins, H. (2022). Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations: 4 Key Economic Theories. [online] History Hit. Available at: https://www.historyhit.com/adam-smiths-wealth-of-nations-4-key-economic-theories/ .

Blakemore, E. (2019). What was the Neolithic Revolution? [online] Culture. Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/neolithic-agricultural-revolution .

Davis, J. (2019). Neolithic Britain: where did the first farmers come from? [online] Nhm.ac.uk. Available at: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2019/april/neolithic-britain-where-did-the-first-farmers-come-from.html .

education.nationalgeographic.org. (n.d.). Global Human Journey. [online] Available at: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/global-human-journey/ .

Estevez, E. (2022). David Ricardo. [online] Investopedia. Available at: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/david-ricardo.asp .

Gonzalez, S. (2023). Assyria: Chronicling the rise and fall of the world’s first empire. Yale Environment 360. [online] 31 May. Available at: https://news.yale.edu/2023/05/26/assyria-chronicling-rise-and-fall-worlds-first-empire [Accessed 21 Jun. 2023].

Johnson, J. (2019). Chinese Trade in the Indian Ocean. [online] Asia Society. Available at: https://asiasociety.org/education/chinese-trade-indian-ocean .

Macon-Cooney, B. (2019). The Industrial Revolution, Politics and Public Policy. [online] www.institute.global. Available at: https://www.institute.global/insights/tech-and-digitalisation/industrial-revolution-politics-and-public-policy .

Mazzella, F. (2017). The Evolution of Trade: From Barter to Mobile Commerce. [online] Conexión Intal. Available at: https://conexionintal.iadb.org/2017/03/06/la-evolucion-del-comercio-del-trueque-al-movil/?lang=en .

Moses, T. (2023). The Evolution of Agricultural Commodities and Human Rights. [online] Medium. Available at: https://medium.datadriveninvestor.com/the-evolution-of-agricultural-commodities-and-human-rights-a58eb3fdbec9 [Accessed 22 Sep. 2023].

Nagle, P. and Baffes, J. (2022). Commodity markets: evolution, challenges, and policies. [online] blogs.worldbank.org. Available at: https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/commodity-markets-evolution-challenges-and-policies .

Pacific Investment Management Company LLC. (n.d.). Understanding Commodities | PIMCO. [online] Available at: https://europe.pimco.com/en-eu/resources/education/understanding-commodities .

Ramya, A. (2018). Explaining Industrial Revolution And The Emergence Of Nation-State. [online] Youth Ki Awaaz. Available at: https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2018/08/industrial-capitalism-and-the-emergence-of-nation-state/ .

Rattini, K. (2019). King Sargon of Akkad—facts and information. [online] Culture. Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/king-sargon-akkad .

Rechtsteiner, R., Schabram, J. and Thomas, A. (2023). The future of commodity trading | McKinsey. [online] www.mckinsey.com. Available at: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/electric-power-and-natural-gas/our-insights/the-future-of-commodity-trading .

Sanchez, D. (2017). Trade Is What Makes Us Human | Dan Sanchez. [online] fee.org. Available at: https://fee.org/articles/trade-is-what-makes-us-human/ [Accessed 22 Sep. 2023].

Strootman, R. (2019). Introduction: Maritime Empires in World History. [online] brill.com. Brill. Available at: https://brill.com/display/book/9789004407671/BP000001.xml?language=en .

Strootman, R., Van Den Eijnde, F. and Van Wijk, R. (n.d.). Empires of the Sea. Maritime Networks in World History. [online] Available at: https://rutter-project.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/vila-santa_review_empiresofthesea2020.pdf [Accessed 22 Sep. 2023].

www.amrevmuseum.org. (n.d.). India and the American Revolution. [online] Available at: https://www.amrevmuseum.org/india-and-the-american-revolution .

Yusin, J. (2018). Marx and the Idea of Commodity – Postcolonial Studies. [online] Emory.edu. Available at: https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/2014/06/21/marx-and-the-idea-of-commodity/ .